Evaluation of the Professional Competency of University Faculty Members as Perceived by Higher Education Students

This study considered the importance of professionalism in university faculty performance since effective learning has its basis in superior instructional and professional competence of teachers. The purpose of the study was to suggest a hybrid model of faculty effectiveness evaluation based on the perceptions of higher education students regarding their faculty’s quality of teaching. The research focused on involving higher education students in determining the effective characteristics of their teachers in order to provide a justification for developing effective operational systems for teacher evaluation in Pakistan. The study used a mixed methods research design comprising both quantitative and qualitative methods for the purpose of data collection and analysis. To address the research problem, the researcher chose to base the theoretical framework for the research on Marsh’s (1982) research and development of the Student Evaluation of Educational Quality (SEEQ) questionnaire. The data was gleaned from using both questionnaires. All constructs’ reliability was above the criteria suggested by different scholars rendering the SEEQ questionnaire as reliable for the study. The quantiative findings provided valuable insight towards developing a model for teacher evaluation. The qualitative findings revealed that students’ qualitative judgment, must be made a compulsory measure in order for higher education institutions to be effective academically and administratively.


Introduction
University faculty members are the prime talent pool because they facilate students to learn. The matter of professionalism in faculty performance becomes important because effective learning is only possible when teachers demonstrate superior instructional and professional competence. Barman et al. (2015) state that university teachers, because of their input, can contribute to development of individuals who can benefit society. Thus, it is the quality of their teaching which is crucial for building worthy citizens, which in turn generates national development (Kareem & Ravirot, 2014).
Teaching, in higher education, is considered to be a meaningful factor that provides the establishment of clear, constant and effective goals which have a profound effect on the quality of learning. The accomplishment or defeat of this effort is evident in how higher education students evaluate their teachers. The advantage of this standard has several uses; such as, determinative feedback regarding the effectiveness of teachers, direction for higher education students when making decisions about faculty and subsequent courses of study, permitting educational managers to make worthwhile assessments regarding the performance of faculty, and furnishing a foundation for new research pertinent to teaching and faculty effectiveness (Marsh, 1983). According to Gurney and Wise (2002), when student views are communicated to faculty, the outcome is better preparation by teachers. Such research provides awareness about the strengths and deficiencies of teaching and learning situations with the purpose of improving the quality of teaching which enriches teacher efficacy.
In the Pakistani context, Rizvi (2003) examines the core characteristics of teaching faculty describing how the process of teacher evaluation makes a difference to create a sustainable mechanism for teacher evaluation. Usmani and Khatoon (2013) state that in Pakistan, faculty assessment is hardly systematic and not practiced in a majority of public sector institutions of higher education although the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan, through the medium of Quality Enhancement Cells, has declared it as an obligatory condition relevant to education.It is interesting to compare how the eastern and western philosophies of teacher evaluation impact the process of real classroom teaching. Scriven (2003) debates that the theory of evaluation must emerge from a balanced and conceived methodology towards classroom practices within which a teacher is highly likely to be effective and resourceful.This debate further opens to a notion that despite higher qualifications and experience, an effective teacher is yet to evolve through a psychologically driven workforce that can help retain and sustain learners' motivation and enthusiasm.At this point it is worthy to note that research in this area in a global context was mainly during the 1980s and 1990s, but in the case of Pakistan this issue has come to light with the establishment of Higher Education Commision, Pakistan in 2002. This shows that there is an enormous gap between the developed world and Pakistan. This study was conducted within the purview of the known possible paradigms of Marsh (1982) and Gurney and Wise (2002) and also examines the process of student evaluation of teaching effectiveness for professional effect. The two studies mentioned above are linked together through a justifiable proposition emphasizing the effectiveness of the stakeholders. One looks at the evaluation of teaching effectiveness and the other looks at the effectiveness of teachers as an embedded criterion.
This practice is beginning to take root but is plagued by management and structural issues pertaining to data collection and student numbers. In addition, the higher education teacher evaluation forms of HEC Pakistan used by deans, heads of departments and peers also contain characteristics which are to be found in the evaluation criteria given by Marsh (1982) and Gurney and Wise (2004). The purpose of the study is to perceive the effectiveness of higher education faculty members in Pakistan according to students' perceptions and experiences. Another major purpose of the study is to suggest the formulation of locally contextualized teacher effectiveness criteria for higher education faculty in Pakistan by the Higher Education Commission (HEC). The following questions directed the study: 1. How do undergraduate and graduate higher education students in Pakistan perceive the effectiveness of a teacher in the context of professional characteristics?
2. How does professional experience and expertise impact undergraduate and graduate higher education students' impressions of faculty members' teaching strengths and potential?
3. To what extent do undergraduate and graduate higher education students perceive the ability of teachers to communicate effectively to deliver course content?

Literature Review
The Student Evaluation of Educational Quality (SEEQ) has Marsh's (1984) support for an extensive university-based, meticulously planned framework to install a system of student evaluations of teaching with the aim of enhancing teaching quality at the tertiary level. Murray (1987) expressed identical views on the value of student evaluations of teaching based on his own research comprising seven studies wherein 80 per cent of the participants supported the argument that student evaluations of teaching resulted in improvements in teaching.The Criteria for Evaluating the Effective Teacher questionnaire (Gurney & Wise, 2002) used in this research was primarily for the purpose of validation of the SEEQ criteria of teacher effectiveness although expressed in different terms and based on Jenkins and Bausdell (1977) criteria expressed as product, process and presage. According to Gallagher (2000), faculty in higher education cannot bypass student ratings of instruction since these have been established as an integral part of the system. Academic managers make use of student ratings to make decisions related to pay and promotion (Marks, 2000). This establishes that there is a compelling connection between student perspectives of teaching assessment and the favorable outcome of a system to evaluate teaching (Tom et al., 1990). Spencer and Schmelkin (2002) support this by stating that teacher assessment has multiple purposes. Apart from this, student feedback on teacher effectiveness facilitates potential students to select courses of study, teachers to improve their performance as well as serve as data for research about teaching and learning (Richardson, 2005). According to Kasiisa and Tamale (2013), those whocan be considered effective as teachers are the ones who enhance student learning. In fact, teacher quality is an important predictor of student learning outcomes and achievement (Koedell & Betts, 2007).
According to Burdsal and Harrison (2008), the issues of the evaluation of the global characteristics of teaching effectiveness as opposed to a multidimensional description for human resource purposes has been the subject of research in the past. In this context, Kozub (2010) stresses that student evaluations of teaching are used abundantly, yet their utility and veracity are questionable by teachers. In spite of this, a considerable amount of research is available and supportive of the soundness of student assessments of teachers (Marks, 2000). According to Stronge (2018), a complication of traits are contributed to teaching per se by teachers themselves comprising their convictions and appraisal orders, their goals for both their students and themselves, their mental outlook and ambitions for the favourable outcomes of their students along with their knowledge of the subject and predilection for teaching ability. In this regard, Elmore and Wong (2009), promote innovation in teaching pedagogy and course design to enhance the quality of student learning. To sum this up, it can be said that student learning depends mainly on effective teaching where students feel they are in control of their learning and are interested in the course and its contents. Raymond (2008) adds the following to the repertoire of teacher effectiveness characteristics. Feedback to students, motivating students, encouraging students independently, and clarity of teaching goals. Check (2006) considers physical persona, ability to illustrate with examples, wit, proficient communication, accurate assessment methods and readiness to provide individual instruction as features of teaching effectiveness which are in line with most of the determinants identified by earlier researchers. Passos (2009) strengthens this view by adding that teacher effectiveness is not a constant feature of teachers as people, rather as results of the interplay between particular teacher features and different determinants which change based on the environment in which the teacher performs. According to Marsh (2007), teaching effectiveness is a conjectural idea which is complicated in terms of assessment since it is equated with teaching habits and teaching genres as signs of teaching effectiveness. Ajayi (2009) regarded the professional characteristics of teachers as subject knowledge, creativity, ability to motivate higher education students, capability to make the teaching and learning process interactive, and provide feedback to higher education students through assessment.
When discussing the reasons for student assessment of teaching effectiveness, Barnett (2019) is of the view that teacher worth is evident from student assessment which provides insight into teaching effectiveness and quality. In fact teacher behaviors contribute to how students learn which are a combination of their practices and temperament (Whitaker, 2013). Students feel that their learning potential is augmented when they are provided with teachers who help them overcome communal, sentimental, and developmental problems (Synrnk, 2012).Therefore, the purpose of student assessment of teachers was to bring about improvement in teaching and for making teachers responsible for their work where student evaluations of teachers would serve as bedrock for teachers to think about their teaching through an analysis of their strengths and weaknesses (Marsh & Roche, 1993;Penny, 2004). Furthermore, effective teachers establish high quality norms for learning outcomes, discipline and student endeavor by combining high quality learning experiencesin student-centered environments (Whitaker, 2013). Magnoand and Sembrano (2007) state that teacher performance is subject to influence by both external and internal considerations which reveal the signs of teaching success, which in turn indicate the success of the institution and the quality of student learning.
In the Pakistani context, Akram (2019), in his study found that students considered those teachers as effective who created a learining environment favourable for study, an environment that allowed a free flow of communication and understanding developed through the sharing of ideas. Stronge (2006) supported this finding with the view that students considered feelings of trustworthiness and caring when teachers established a beneficial and creative atmosphere for learning as hallmarks of teacher effectiveness.Student assessments of teaching serve to educate due to their objectivity and exactness, especially when the data is gleaned through reliable measures (Lidice & Saglam, 2012).

Research Design
The social constructivist paradigm for the qualitative aspect of the study was employed because the data generated from the social interactions of the participants of the focus groups resulted in individual learning regarding their perception and formulation of teacher effectiveness criteria. According to Reznitskaya et al. (2007), a complete spectrum of benefits results from the use of discussion among students which are supported and based on the theories of social constructivism. Thus, the study used a mixed methods research design comprising both quantitative and qualitative methods for the purpose of data collection and analysis.
According to Groves, et al. (2009) andCreswell (2003), a multi-method research model using quantitative and qualitative research approaches is considered to be a mixed methods research. Denzin and Lincoln (2005) consider this pattern of triangulation of data using various methods a matter of necessity, especially in a study of complicated human behavior as is the case of teaching and learning where the aim is to comprehend the research problem from the point of view of the participants and thereafter, gather data regarding particular issues through quantitative measures. Denzin and Lincoln (2005) further state that mixed methods research allows for bolstering one approach by another in case of weakness in any one of them. In short, mixed methods provide accuracy, intensity and scope to the research.

Population and Sampling
The population of the study was the undergraduate and graduate students of higher education in Pakistan studying in different programs of specializations in various Higher Education Commission (HEC) chartered and recognized public and private sector universities and degree-awarding institutions. After dividing the population into layers, the researcher randomly selected the sample proportionally in order to draw conclusions from the different sub-groups. The researcher then used simple probability sampling.The sampling of the study constituted higher education institutions according to the sampling fit of stratified sampling design.

Procedures
The selection of institutions was from all the four provinces of Pakistan through the approved HEC-listed universities. The universities were contacted via email to get their consent to participate followed by sending the questionnaires to acquire data for the study. Three categories of universities were selected, namely business administration, social sciences and engineering sciences. The universities selected were according to HEC rankings, therefore, three from top level, three from middle level and three from lower level were selected.

Research Instruments
The researcher used two questionnaires, namely the Student Evaluation of Educational Quality (SEEQ), (Marsh, 1982) and the criteria for evaluating the effective teacher (Gurney and Wise, 2002) which facilitated the production of causal and meaningful descriptions and underlying relationships between dependent and independent variables. The first questionnaire was the Student Evaluation of Educational Quality (SEEQ) by Marsh (1982) which is an instrument for gathering data pertaining to students' assessments of teaching in higher education. The SEEQ measures nine factors of teaching effectiveness. Previous research has shown that the rating factors could be replicated and were generalizable across varied student populations and evaluation methods. The SEEQ comprises 40 questions, has been researched extensively and it has been revealed that it is valid and reliable. It is a public instrument and permission to use it has been granted by Marsh. The SEEQ is multidimensional and standardized in design possessing high validity and reliability for gauging teaching effectiveness (Coffey & Gibbs, 2001).
The second questionnaire named Criteria for Evaluating the Effective Teacher by Gurney and Wise (2002). The questionnaire comprised 40 items and was devised by Gurney and Wise on the basis of the research by Jenkins and Bausdell (1975) and their own studies. Upon analysis of the instrument it was revealed that the items included were greatly similar to the items included in the SEEQ. Since this instrument was developed 20 years later, it established that Marsh's characteristics were valid. Data collection for the questionnaires was done by the researchers through personal contact with the participants since email access was limited. The respondents were able to complete them at their own convenience away from the researcher's influence and control. The questionnaires were mostly Likert type scale and respondents were instructed to use the most suitable response. The analysis of the data was by using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences 22.0 (SPSS).
The main questions of the questionnaires were effectiveness, overall performance, and course characteristics. Effectiveness has eight main variables each consisting of 2 to 8 items. Each respondent's responses on all eight questions were summed up and analyzed according to the hypotheses of the study. On the basis of the results all constructs' reliability is above the criteria suggested by different scholars and this means that the SEEQ questionnaire was reliable for the study. Correlation results of all variables showed a significant positive association. On the basis of regression results in all cases we failed to reject the null hypotheses of SEEQ and a significant association with the independent variable of teacher effectiveness is shown but the Criteria for Evaluating the Effective Teacher questionnaire does not accommodate the hypotheses. Only a few hypotheses were accepted while all others were rejected. This means that the SEEQ questionnaire is still valid for teacher evaluation but the Criteria for Evaluating the Effective Teacher questionnaire is not valid as respondents' outputs show although the researcher expected the time gap to be closed with the conceptual framework and Ibad & Sharjeel the SEEQ. The Criteria for Evaluating the Effective Teacher questionnaire (Gurney & Wise, 2002) did not yield the expected results. It is a personal observation of the researchers that English being the language of the questionnaire and the students being weak in the language, there was a failure to understand the items of the questionnaire. Many participants asked for an explanation of what certain items meant in their mother tongue.

Data Analysis
For the qualitative data the researcher used a semi-structured interview guide comprising majorly of open-ended questions for eliciting answers which served as a valuable information gathering opportunity for the researcher to investigate the dimensions of the problem. The semi-structured interview guidehelped elicit meaningful and focused data which helped in the acquisition of the participants' experiences.In the case of the focus group discussions, thematic coding of data was done to make meaning since data analysis is the process of creating meaning by consolidating, reducing and interpreting narrative as well as the researcher's scrutiny and comprehension.In this way the creation of categories or topics containing persisting data patterns becomes achievable (Merriam, 2001). Such were the propositions guiding data analysis leading to the formation of groupings clarifying the research purpose through conceptually corresponding outcomes. Therefore, after transcribing focus group discussion recordings, thematic classification of data followed with the objective of understanding what features comprise an effective university faculty member.
The characteristics of teacher effectiveness identified by Marsh (1982) address the issues and challenges in Pakistani higher education culture. The other significant proposition to observe the low acceptance of the Gurney model for teacher effectiveness breeds from the fact that student autonomy in Pakistani higher education culture is administration-controlled. Academic administrators do not seem to welcome faculty observations as their core competency to foster a culture of collegiality and cohesion. Most institutions do not have the practice of having their faculty members evaluated through the experiences of students at undergraduate and graduate levels. The language and options in the SEEQ are significantly different from the Gurney model. It primarily addresses the issues of higher education students in multiple contexts. The major difference between the two models emerged also from the fact those students who had obtained fluency in written English found it easier to respond correctly and those who had not, showed their lacking in the context comprehension conspicuously.
As regards the qualitative aspect where focus group discussions would yield the descriptive information, the researchers followed Denzin and Lincoln's (2005) interpretive inquiry approach which focuses on recognizing and understanding the rationale people provide for their actions and interactions with others. According to Marshall and Rossman (2006), qualitative methods of inquiry are befitting descriptive research where the context and setting is emphasized leading to a profound understanding of participant experiences. The participants offered explanations which allowed the researchers to predict the outcomes within the discussions and determine whether understanding was being influenced in the discussions (Woodside, 2010).

Findings and Discussion
This study arose out of a need to identify teacher effectiveness characteristics in higher education institutions in Pakistan becausenot much research is conducted in this domain. Since higher education students are the ones impacted, it is necessary that their views regarding teacher effectiveness characteristics be considered when benchmarking teacher quality. Marsh (1982) delineated characteristics of effective teachers by considering student perceptions of the same which are evident in the Student Evaluation of Educational Quality (SEEQ) questionnaire which he developed as a result of research involving student perceptions since students are the most important stakeholders and beneficiaries of teaching.
According to Usmani and Khatoon (2013), in the Pakistani context faculty evaluation is largely unstructured and not a practise in most universities in the public sector. The Higher Education Commission of Pakistan though, through Quality Enhancement Cells has made it obligatory in the teaching and learning process. This step is an attempt to strengthen teaching quality. The researchersstate that several studies have been conducted elsewhere in which student perceptions of effective teachers have been gauged, however, no studies have been conducted in Pakistan. Student evaluations and perceptions do not figure in either formative or summative assessments and there appears to be no system to measure teacher effectiveness criteria. In fact, upon examination of the Higher Education Commission (HEC) of Pakistan documents pertaining to higher education teacher awards, it may be Ibad & Sharjeel mentioned that 30 percent weightage is assigned to student evaluations of teachers with at least 70 percent students contributing to the evaluation process (HEC/ Teacher Awards). Further to this, the evaluation criteria for student evaluations reveal characteristics of effective higher education teachers, several of which are similar to the identified characteristics (Gurney & Wise, 2002;Marsh, 1982).
Regarding the results, quantitative analyses pertaining to the objectives of the research which attempt to establish teacher effectiveness characteristics in higher education in Pakistan according to students viewing the professional performance of their faculty were undertaken. In addition, thematic analyses of the qualitative data derived from focus group interviews which served to triangulate the data with the intention of validating the tool data and producing a holistic outlook of accepted experience were also carried out.
The study found its outcomes in terms of how higher education stakeholders, specifically the students perceive their teachers' effectiveness. The particular aspects evidenced have to be emphasized while developing indigenous faculty evaluation criteria in higher education institutions in Pakistan. Most of the observation output revealed that faculty evaluation is merely a term end practice prior to receiving term grades for transcripts. Students' qualitative judgment as is the evidence in the above data, must be made a compulsory measure in order for higher education institutions to be effective academically and administratively. The quantitative data revealed that students' perceptions are varied in terms of specific variables in the study. The model presented by Gurney and Wise (2002) is not a good fit model as perceived by higher education students in Pakistan. The variables are low in their relationship and evidently insignificant for such a model for faculty evaluation. The SEEQ model, on the other hand, provides valuable insight towards developing a model for teacher evaluation.
Based on the outcomes of student evaluations of teaching effectiveness, the following measures are suggested for the improvement of teaching according to what student assessments reveal as important to learning. These could be used by academic administrators to assess the performance of teaching faculty and could also be used by faculty themselves for the purpose of self-assessment. In fact, a national policy framework could be developed by the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan (HEC) to set an example for the administration and management of universities for an effective process of faculty evaluation. The four point scale assesses the rating levels. 1. Unable to meet acceptable standards 2. Nearly able to meet acceptable standards 3. Able to meet acceptable standards 4. Above acceptable standards.  Table 1 is an attempt to inculcate a culture of teacher evaluation in Pakistan which would serve to enhance the quality of teaching and learning in higher education institutions across Pakistan.

Qualitative Analysis
The focus group interview data revealed the perceptions of higher education students regarding the professional competence of university faculty ascertained in the light of teacher effectiveness characteristics. The rationale for the focus group data was to substantiate the tool data to add to the diversity of viewpoints, authenticate the aspects which symbolize the phenomena, thereby producing a fully developed understanding of the subject from the Pakistani perspective. The medium of language used by the researcher was English; however, low levels of proficiency in the language due to not being the first or second language, resulted in several participants responding in both English and Urdu which is the national language of Pakistan. Owing to this code-switching, the researchers had to translate the responses and get the translation verified by a person competent in both languages. It is important to mention at this point that several participants answered with 'what should be the case' rather than 'what is the case' in spite of the researcher requesting them to state the realities leading to limitations in the required output. That is to say that the findings are not as abundant and rich as expected, nevertheless, the following themes were achieved from the analysis of the data.

Characteristics of the Most Effective Teacher
The responses revealed personality traits of friendliness, availability and accessibility, cooperativeness and kindness, being caring and communicative, and having a good attitude. The responses showed that higher education students consider positive behavior and personality traits as well as being knowledgeable, and having research and presentation skills as characteristics of effective teachers they had come across. These characteristics are also reflected in Nonis and Hudson's (2004) findings which include classroom interaction, rapport, learning, and breadth of knowledge as effectiveness characteristics of teachers. The responses also reflect the multidimensional nature of teaching wherein teacher personality, attitude, knowledge of the subject, and ability to impart and communicate were what higher education students in Pakistan valued in their teachers.

Views Regarding the Expertise and Experience
They were clear about the learning objectives, used a variety of teaching methodologies, and were effective. As far as the experience is concerned, the respondents felt that their teachers were experienced in their field but not all were necessarily able to perform well. This goes to say that the learning objectives were being met because of teacher expertise and adequate teaching methodologies. According to Al Hinai (2011), students place a similar level of value on several aspects related to the mastery of the subject matter, teaching experience. Braskamp and Ory (1994) regard teaching quality and learning as contributing to teacher effectiveness since teachers adopted effective learning strategies with the help of their knowledge, skills, and experience. Whenever these qualities are found in Pakistani teachers in higher education, students deem these teachers as effective.

The Level of Communication Effectiveness
The respondents' views about communication effectiveness were that the majority of respondents considered their teachers to be effective in their communication. Al Hinai's (2011) research also revealed that the presentation and facilitation aspect of teaching is considered an important component of teacher effectiveness..Therefore, it may be concluded that Pakistani students in higher education give importance to communication as a determinant of teacher effectiveness.

Equitabilty of Assessments Standards
The participants' responses were about their fairness and usefulness. Regarding fairness respondents had mixed views since in some institutes the respondents expressed positive views, whereas in others the views were negative. Regarding assessment it is found that students had mixed views on the subject of fairness of assessments. While a large number of respondents considered assessments to be fair, a sufficiently large number considered them to be otherwise. In this regard Ajayi (2009) was of the view that providing feedback to higher education students through assessment was a professional characteristic of teachers and failure in this area in Pakistani higher education reflects poorly on teacher performance. Ferdinand (2007) considers competent assessment procedures as a reflection of effective teaching, and the failure to provide rubrics to higher education students about assessment criteria in Pakistan shows teachers as ineffective in this area.

Conclusion and Recommendations
The study concludes that a significant model for the sake of measuring higher education faculty members' expertise and experience does not exist. Developing such criteria for effectiveness is the need that the researcher has concluded through various studies. A focus on the multidimensional nature of teacher effectiveness in the context of Pakistan will enable students, teachers, administrators and academicians to view the necessities of formulating teacher effectiveness criteria. Barnett (2019) in her research concluded that highly effective teachers use diverse pedagogies that cater to the varying needs, expectations, learning styles, and abilities of learners. In addition, she found that effective teachers exhibited an awareness of the significance of communication regarding dissemination of information, learner behavior, and outcomes of learning. Enthusiasm for both subject knowledge and the avocation was evident in effective teaching. The conclusion also encompasses a gap between policy parameters and real classroom practices in the Pakistani context. Students in higher education institutions in Pakistan perceive an effective teacher as one who not only carves their needs into real workable solutions, but also inculcates among them a spirit to explore future potential opportunities. The study thus, concludes that a sustainable policy be designed and developed in accordance with national needs incorporating some of the variables as presented in the study models. The link between students' real classroom needs and their faculty members' mastery over the course contents must be an integral part of future evaluation prior to discussions and decisions on students' academic achievements in higher education institutions.
Further recommendations must consider the following aspects: 1. Students must be acknowledged as important partners in the process of education especially in the assessment of teaching and learning since the outcomes of this study show that they are capable of making qualified assessments of their faculty in terms of recognizing and setting apart diverse teaching dimensions which serve to prove that their ratings are not the result of an individual determinant but of a collection of determinants which are similar to those recognized by students in developed countries.
2. Efforts aimed at teacher evaluation through student assessments of teaching effectiveness should lead to induction and professional development programs for teachers which should assist quality enhancement programs to attain their objectives and meet their standards.
3. Academic administrators and teachers should be cognizant of the fact that higher education student assessments of teaching may be motivated by various considerations, such as teacher's race and culture (Pakistan being a multicultural, multiracial and multilingual country), difficulty level of course, type of course, and other considerations as they could be contributing to student bias in assessment of teachers and not attended to in the instrument used for evaluation.
4. Finally, a teacher evaluation framework when developed, should consider teacher effectiveness characteristics identified.